Lithography (a type of printing process) allowed for faster reproduction of art because it eliminated the need to etch the picture on a metal plate. The first lithograph studios in India were started by graduates of colonial art schools and therefore their work had a distinct European influence.

Lithographs were often used for political propaganda. Before independence, through allegorical depictions, they fuelled anti-British sentiment and served in building national consciousness.
Calcutta Art Studio (still in operation), Chitrashala Press in Poona (by Chitpavan Brahmins) and Ravi Varma Lithograph Press in Bombay (by Raja Ravi Varma) were pioneers in the field.

As a by-product of cheaper and quicker printing, all forms of images proliferated markets and found their way into private homes. Of particular interest though are Raja Ravi Varma’s paintings because his gods and goddesses set the prototype for depictions of divinity.

His figures made for ideal calendar art due to their theatrical rendering. He adapted the modern medium of oil painting to Indian light, depicting rich costumes and objects with life-like materiality.
For his mythical figures, Ravi Varma used photographs of real people as reference and set them against idyllic backgrounds. In this way, by collapsing all context, he made divinity more relatable for the urban middle class – now, their deities looked human and belonged to their times, not to a bygone historical period.

At a national level, Ravi Varma’s interpretations of Indian tradition and European Orientalism fought foreign hegemony and instilled pride in the people by reviving a ‘classical’ past.

In the 1950s, it was artists like Pednekar, Mulgaonkar and S.M. Pandit that took the baton forward in the printing industry.

After Independence, lithographs of leaders like Shivaji, Prithviraj Chauhan, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi, Bhagat Singh and so on were popular.

From the mid 1900s, emerging large state-run and privately owned enterprises made their presence felt through wall calendars. For their pictorial value, these calendars were often preserved well beyond the running year.

Popular themes betray public concerns of the time. In the immediate years after Independence, Air India popularized the trend of accompanying pan-India images with relevant text. Besides perking interest, this educated people about different regions, their specialties and specific customs. Jai Jawan Jai Kisan jingoism of the ‘60s found its place on Indian walls too. Calendars from this period often carried pictures of farmers framed by lush fields and Army men set against tankers.

Changes in the calendar form itself show a society proud of its pluralistic nature. By the 1970s, ’Kaal Nirnaya’ calendars, following the English date-month pattern, became the norm. Interestingly, they also indicated all important festivals and occasions, irrespective of religion. The back of the page usually imparted practical information of daily importance such as Railway timetables, health tips and recipes.

Portraits – whether of the family or a single person – were visual records marking the celebration of festivities or personal rites of passage. Not a prerogative of the royalty only, by the late 1800s, people from all walks of society flocked studios.

It was, literally and metaphorically, a chance to construct an image of oneself. Posing in fancy attire against a carefully staged mise en scène, one could project one’s idealized identity. In fact, this was an important social practice for young girls because arranged marriages were often fixed by evaluating the prospective bride’s picture. So, the image recommended the person.

To the selfie-loving generation these photographs will appear stoic. Compositions – most often symmetrical – were governed by rules of European painting.

And conspicuous by absence are smiles. Taking photographs was a rare activity. The set-ups were usually formal and grinning appears to have been inappropriate.

With painted backdrops and various props early studios like Bourne & Shepherd, Johnston & Hoffmann, Raja Deen Dayal & Sons, Hamilton Studios resembled art ateliers. Foreground objects were chosen to suit the person’s gender and status and the background was usually neutral, displaying different landscapes or floral patterns.

Till the mid-20th century, artists corrected faults in lighting and did other touch-up work manually.

Before India’s economy opened up, higher education (especially studying abroad) was a privilege more than a right. So, those who did obtain professional degrees often framed their certificates for all to see. To clients, it validated the person’s qualifications and personally, it was a matter of great pride. And, this sense of achievement is well reflected in the dignified photographs taken at the time of graduation, either individually or with classmates.

Pasting posters of film stars or even making collages from magazine cutouts was quite a rage in the ‘80s and ‘90s. Besides a flourishing print media industry, this trend reflected a society that was taking its first steps towards individualism. Youngsters worshipped new democratic idols – heros/heroines who dared to follow their dreams.

On screen too, these personas were challenging oppressive society, fighting corrupt politicians and/or restrictive family. It was also highly fashionable to pin up pictures of international artists.

Homes nourish our unique worldview and ways of thinking. As a physical site they bear witness to our lifespan, even nourishing the next generation. Thus, inextricably linked to individual identity and being a sanctuary of privacy, they are venerated as ‘wombs of existence’.

By this understanding, traditionally, surface decoration was undertaken to ritually transform the domestic space and bring it closer to the spiritual realm.

The act of painting walls can be sacred, ceremonial or an assertion of one’s individuality. For example: In Orissa, exterior walls of farming and fishing households are decorated with rice-powder patterns called jhoti chita. These paintings are done in reverence of Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity and well-being. Interestingly, if the chita remains untainted, it is considered an inauspicious sign implying that the house has no children (who would typically smear it).

In north Bihar, women of the Mithila area around Madhubani, make floor and wall depictions for seasonal festivities and wedding rituals. Dearly loved designs are recorded in sketchbooks and passed on to the younger ones.

The houses of Kutch, Kathiawad and far western Rajasthan make for the finest instances of adornment as character attributes. Using clay, dung, bamboo and sticks, intricate geometric patterns are embossed on the surface. To complete the design, mirrors are inlaid into it. The final visual effect mimics the abla-embroidered textiles of the region.

Photographs by Diedi von Schaewen