In any large society, like India, with an ancient time-culture relationship where the tribal, peasant and urban levels have existed side by side as continuum with their interaction governed by “dual complimentary processes of universalization and parochialization”, one comes across scores of situations of survival of ancient and tribal elements in modern and urban contexts. This is the reason why stone implements and earthen pots continued to be in use even after the introduction of metals.

These earlier and later elements have not only survived side by side but have influenced one another. It is interesting to note that, when an ancient tradition of technology modernizes due to the advent of new materials, there is a slow transition from the old. The objects belonging to this period of transition throw light on the creativity of the craftsmen. As they impose pre-existing forms and technologies onto the new material – creating transitional hybrid forms, some of which are discarded over time, and others, adapted and absorbed.

While it may be true to consider that ancient traditions of terracotta pots as well as those of the gourd and leather have provided some inspiration to the metal utensils of India, it may not be denied that the Indian metal worker, over the centuries, has understood his medium quite well.

The capacity to fashion large and small everyday objects of almost any shape and size from pieces of metal-sheets hammered to the required shape and joined together by dovetailing and soldering, needs a vision, conception, and sensitivity of an artist or sculptor.

The three basic methods of metal working traditionally known in India are: hammering, forging and casting. These three techniques seem to be in use in India from the middle to the 3rd millennium BC. As is evident from the large archaeological yields of metal objects from the various sites of Harappa culture and techniques of hammering and forging in any case, and that of casting were known from the days of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Surface decorations were attained by incrustation, inlay, chasing, repousee, engraving, casting or punching. Since the cire perdue method of metal casting was most popular, each object was cast from a fresh mould. Due to this reason each object required to be individually handcrafted, making each piece a unique masterpiece.

Some of the earliest traceable archaeological evidences of metal work are copper tools found from pre-Harrappan sites of Baluchistan and Makran areas. Several bronze and copper figures and antiquities have been discovered from Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

From the literary evidence of the description of the Rigveda it appears that bronze and copper smithy was a specialized science and that these craftsmen were held in high esteem.

Another literary source that throws light on types of metals, techniques, and metal smiths and other craftsmen is Panini’s Astadhyayi (pre-Mauryan) and Mahabhasya of Ptanjali (Panini’s commentator 2nd century BC)

From the 1st Century onwards there is an unbroken chain of metal antiquities. From the post-Mauryan period and then there is a rich bulk of literary references and archaeological finds that appear in the Gupta Period.

In the following periods, the most remarkable are the Pala and Chola bronzes. The latter especially attained the climax of the art of metal casting in India.

Besides the major milestones in artefacts and architectural pieces in the art of metal working in India, there must have been hundreds of local metal smiths scattered all over India, who must have produced innumerable objects of veneration, votive figures, ritual objects, accessories, lamps and utensils.

Jyotindra Jain